Seventh Blog Entry

Introduction

This blog entry shall outline the methodology, literature review and the research assumptions of the problem identified in the sixth blog entry.

1 Methodology
The focus and perspective of this research is to understand the role of the media in the post-apartheid South Africa. This research shall make use of the press or print media to analyse the situations that have been identified as having arose between the press and the ruling party. The past point of view is that; there has in most instances been a tension between the ANC and how the print media (press) reports about it. Several court battles have been identified, that give a clear indication that; the ANC has not been completely at peace with the press. It is a possible future phenomenon that may arise if the role of the media in the post-apartheid South Africa is not deeply understood.

Ellis & Levy (2008) indicate that; “although not directly related to the research problem, the methodology, results, and conclusions of a study are directly impacted by the problem driving the research. They further indicate that; according to Leedy & Ormrod (2005); a research methodology is defined as “the general approach the researcher takes in carrying out the research project”.  Research methods that could be used in this study are; descriptive (case study); textual analysis or qualitative methods. For the purpose of this study a descriptive (case study) method analysis of the problem under investigation may best be utilised to answer this problem. According to Wimmer & Dominick (2006); “Case studies are conducted when a researcher needs to understand or explain a phenomenon.” They further explain that Yin (1994) defines a case study as an empirical inquiry that uses multiple sources of evidence to investigate a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, in which the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context are not clearly evident.” In relation to the problem under investigation a case study would be a best method to be followed as a set of sources of evidence relating to the relationship between the press and the ANC shall be compiled in order to determine the state of such a relationship. The evidence shall base much on a case study compiled from the news articles that involves the ANC and then press.

2 Literature Review

Fourie (2007:185) establishes that; “politicians frequently accuse the media of misinterpreting them, of framing them, of lying, of wrongfully criticising them, and of not doing what they wish the media to do or achieve.” This argument goes well with the problem which this study attempts to understand. Theories that are helpful in answering the problem statement under investigation are theories on; the role and functions of the media in society. Applying these theories provide this research with a chance to deal much on the functions of the media, particularity on the political functions of the media. The case studies on the press and its roles on politics as indicated in the background discussions provide a volume of evidence of the phenomenon under investigation.

While this study uses the case study methodology; previous studies on the same problem has applied different methodological approaches. For an example in a 2010 study by Fiona White on the “Positioning Civil Society Post-Polokwane: Coming to Terms with ANC Political Leadership Changes”, the following was applied in terms of the methodological approach. White (2010) establishes that; “this project is a qualitative study that uses three methods of data collection. First, a comprehensive literature review and desk-based analysis was conducted to generate background information in the following key areas: general definitions of civil society and other key terms; the definition and characteristics of civil society in a South African context; the relationship between civil society and the ANC after 1994; an overview of the ANC, the SACP and COSATU, and their relationships during the past three decades.”

It is clear that while this study employs the case study methodological approach it has been done alternatively on the previous research on the same problem. But however the method chose for this study still best fits to answer the problem under investigation given the plethora of theories and case studies concerning the press and ANC tensions.

 3 Research assumptions

 

 This research intends, in terms of the results, to show that;

·         The media (press) has its obligation towards its reporting

·         The press does not have intentions of portraying the ANC (government) in a bad way.

·         The press have a duty to fulfil to society

·         The ANC is not a target of the press

·         All parties are reported about in the same manner

List of sources

Ellis, TJ & Levy, Y. 2008. Framework of problem-based research: a guide for novice researchers on the development of a research-worthy problem. Information Science: the journal of an emerging transdiscipline. 11: 17-33.

Fourie, PJ(ed). 2007. Media studies: media history, media and society. 2nd edition. Cape Town: Juta.

Wimmer, RD & Dominick, JR. 2006. Mass media research: an introduction. 8th edition. Wadsworth: Cengage.

White, F. 2010. Positioning Civil Society Post-Polokwane: Coming to Terms with ANC Political Leadership Changes. Johannesburg: Centre for policy studies. [O] Available: http://www.cps.org.za/cps%20pdf/RR124.pdf

Sixth Blog Entry

Introduction

This blog will outline and reflect on the following components of the research proposal, which are discussed in chronological order as; problem statement; background; purpose and significance of the research. The researcher shall introduce the intentions of this study and consequently reflect on the aspects such as a need for this study.

1 Problem Statement

The relationship between the African National Congress (ANC) and the South African press has at sometimes proved to be unhealthy due to the chain of court cases by the ANC against the journalists. Post 1994 the African National Congress (ANC) has been at the helm of the government for five consecutive terms, one may point out. It has been a daunting task for the media on representing the ANC on its daily coverage. Various court cases have taken place between the ruling party and the press.

2 Background

It has been a tough and rough time for various press editors and journalists when coming to their reporting, one may indicate. One main example is the arrest of the then Sunday Times journalist (Mzilikazi-wa-Afrika) for covering the story that could expose the clandestine deals of one of the ANC top leadership and also a National Police Chief.  Mzilikzi-wa-Afrika reported in 2010 that; the police general, Bekhi Cele was involved in an illegal lease of new police headquarters.

In 2012 then came the controversial “spear “painting of President Jacob Zuma. The Goodman Gallery had run its art exhibitions and there appeared on show what was called the spear painting which portrayed Zuma with his genital parts exposed. In reaction to that the secretary-general of the South African Communist Party (SACP), Blade Nzimande urged all the City-press paper readers to boycott its readership and also to pull back their subscriptions. According to SABC News; “He has further appealed for those who subscribe to the newspaper to cancel their subscriptions in boycott against the paper publishing the controversial Brett Murray painting that portrays President Jacob Zuma with exposed private parts.”

“Since 2008 the ANC, the Young Communist League and Zuma have brought litigious actions against Zapiro for cartoons, calling them defamatory and overstepping the bounds of the right to free speech”, Hlongwane (2011).Since there has been a chain of lawsuits and court cases between the press and the ruling party, it becomes a need for scholars to investigate what may be the root cause of such developments.

3 Purpose

The purpose of this study is to understand the role of the media in the post-apartheid South Africa. By referring to the above examples of the anti-press reactions by the ANC it becomes clear that somehow if investigated, there might be a gap in understanding of the role of the media, particularly press in the democratic South Africa. This prompts the researcher to seek to understand the stipulations of the constitution on the legislation towards the press. This research goal is to; examine the press stories about the ANC and its alliance and view them in line with the role of the media in South Africa.

4 Significance

This study will serve as the investigative process which shall seek to understand the current press “code of conduct”. By comparing such press code with the reports that were deemed unruly by the ANC, it would be evident from such comparison whether the ANC had a case to opt for litigation or was the press fair on their reporting. It would be not completely clear for public whether the ANC calls were fair or the press was incorrect, vies versa, thus a need for this study.

This study shall clarify factors that influence the behaviour of the ANC towards the press. The findings of this study can be used by both the ANC and the press industries to resolve the bad or unwanted situations the press and the ANC had found themselves in. Furthermore this study may be used by the legislation making bodies to devise new tools on protecting the press rather than attempting to regulate it.  In relation to society, the society will understand the role of the press and will from the findings of this study be able to decide for their selves which party is write or wrong should an argument arise. The findings will enlighten the broader society in understanding the functions of the press such as reporting and rules that govern them. Alternatively, the society will be able to notice when the press has gone out of boundaries and conversely when the ANC wrongly accusing the press.

List of Sources

Achmat, Z. 2010. Journalist gets arrested. Sowetanonline, 4 August [O] Available: http://www.writingrights.org/2010/08/04/breaking-news-journalist-mzilikazi-wa-afrika-arrested-resist-this-onslaught-against-our-freedom/

Hlongwane, S. 2011. Another Zuma-vs-Zapiro cartoon battle, another outrage in the wall. Daily Maverick, 14 June [O] Available: http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2011-06-14-another-zuma-vs-zapiro-cartoon-battle-another-outrage-in-the-wall#.VDkP56MaKUk

SABC News. 2012. Boycott the City Press.  [O] Available : http://www.sabc.co.za/news/a/ae6765004b5c3a0bbb8dbb8be44260da/Boycott-the-City-Press%3A-Blade-Nzimande-20120524

Fifth Blog Entry

A comparative critique of the research projects by Lloyd, Duncan, and Bussiek (2010) on Public broadcasting in Africa; and Human Capital (2008) on Public service broadcasting now and in the future

Introduction

This blog entry shall provide a comparative critique on the above-mentioned research projects conducted on the public broadcasting between the years 2008 and 2010. The writer shall use the components that make up writing the research project in order to be able to compare these research projects.

A comparative critique

Firstly the writer shall compare both research projects in terms of their titles. When one take a glance at each of these research project’s title, it emerges that in Lloyd et al (2010) research project; the main title perfectly describes the research project by using the secondary or supporting titles. The title managed to describe the type of the research as a survey, had also described which part of Africa is being researched in relation with the public broadcasting.

While looking at the Human Capital (2008) research report; the title is somehow vague in terms the research project setting (where the research did take place). But apart from that mistake, the title of the report does describe the research project well and more importantly does explain which specific aspect of the media is being researched in the public service broadcasting during the given time periods. The title makes it clear that the research project is aimed at researching the audience attitudes.

According to the Undergraduate Research Conference (2014) “an abstract is a one-paragraph summary of a research project”. It goes on to establish that; abstracts precede papers in research journals and appear in programs of scholarly conferences. One may put it that; an abstract is that summary that gives a reader an overview of what is covered in the research.

In relation to the Lloyd et al (2010) research project the researchers in what they referred to as ‘foreword’ clearly detailed the background of the public service broadcasting in Africa and also mentioned some common problems such institutions are faced with. In the final paragraph of their foreword the researchers give an indication of what their project aims to address or solve.

While Lloyd et al (2010) uses a clear narrated abstract, Human Capital (2008) research project uses a more sophisticated form of an abstract. In the executive summary part, the researchers use a point-by-point format where they provide the findings obtained from the projects participants. One may strongly argue that, this form of summary may be treated as an abstract. To substantiate this argument, one may put it that such findings contain a rich information about what the research was all about and can still appeal to the reader to go on reading the research project.

In both the Lloyd et al (2010) and Human Capital (2008) studies, the introductory part of each does make the purpose of the research clear. In Lloyd et al (2010) the purpose of the study is made clear, for example, where they indicate that; in order to assist the current, renewed efforts towards broadcasting reform in South Africa, the research and editing team have made their findings, conclusions and recommendations successively available to the SOS Coalition. The latter clearly indicates the need or purpose of the study to have been undertaken, one may argue.

With Human Capital (2008) study, the introductory part the researcher clearly indicates the purpose of the study where it is stated that; the purpose of the research is to help inform the BBC’s submission to Ofcom’s second review of public service broadcasting, currently underway. Well put and full of detail, one may argue that; the reader would not struggle in understanding the purpose of the study.

In both studies it emerges that, in Lloyd et al (2010) study, the problem statement is vague but explained by the title of the study, one may contend. This conclusion is arrived at given the nature of the study as a survey, which one may argue that its main purpose was to investigate the state of the matters at hand but not to answer an answered question as one may put it. But in contrast to that; the Human Capital (2008) study lays a clear problem statement as; “the purpose of the research is to help inform the BBC’s submission to Ofcom’s second review of public service broadcasting, currently underway”.

In relation to the Human Capital (2008) study Human Capital was commissioned by the BBC Executive to carry out a programme of audience research investigating attitudes towards public service broadcasting (PSB) and plurality. In other words, the BBC Executive saw it as worthwhile for the study to be conducted, hence a reason for the study. For Lloyd et al (2010); the main reason for conducting this research was to contribute to Africa’s democratic consolidation. One may argue that it may have been a problem that African democracies may at some stages seen as unconsolidated and prone to rapid collapse after they have been acquired by African states. South Africa was used as a subject of this research.

Lloyd et al (2010) study does not use research questions as one reads through it. The integral part of the study is the discussion on the important aspects that are viewed by the researchers as suitable for arriving at conclusions and recommendations. Aspects discussed and investigated are among other things, the landscape of broadcasting, the regulation towards broadcasting, and the programming part of broadcasting. For Human Capital (2008) study the researcher does not have a clear research question. Only the problem statement is apparent which can in turn be restated as a research questions. One may in a question form re-state it as “what attitudes do the audiences hold towards the Public Service Broadcasting (PSB) and plurality?”

It is clear that both studies use the aid of statistics in terms of arriving at their findings. The different statistical methods such as graphs are used to present different data that contains figures.  One may add that, the statistical methods used in both studies are well explained and comprehensive for one to use.

Finally when looking to these two studies in relation to the conclusions and recommendations, it emerged that the Human Capital (2008) study does not have any recommendations but only conclusions. In contrast to that, Lloyd et al (2010) study provides for both conclusions and recommendations. All the concluding remarks are them followed by the recommendations, for example; they recommend that, inter alia, ICASA (Independent Communication Authority of South Africa) as well as civil society organisations should review the diversity of news across the different stations to assess whether or not current measures are ensuring access to diverse and original news on radio, or if there is an over-reliance on news agencies for content.

Conclusion

A comparative critique has been undertaken in relation of the two studies namely; Lloyd et al (2010) and Human Capital (2008). With the aid of the guidelines for conducting a critique of the research, certain aspects have been rooted out when comparing the two studies. It was found out that while most of the research components are present in both studies components such as the recommendations were lacking in the other study.

 List of Sources

Human Capital. 2008. Public Service Broadcasting Now and in the Future - Audience Attitudes. A report plus research appendix by Human Capital. [O]: http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/aboutthebbc/insidethebbc/howwework/reports/pdf/now_future.pdf
Lloyd, L., Duncan, J., Minnie, J. and Bussiek, H. 2010. Public Broadcasting in Africa. A Survey. South Africa Country Report. [O]: http://www.mediamonitoringafrica.org/images/uploads/Annexure_D_-_Afrimap_Research.pdf

Undergraduate Research Conference. 2014. How to Write an Abstract for the Undergraduate Research, Scholarship and Creative Activities Conference [O] Available: http://undergraduateresearch.ucdavis.edu/urcConf/write.html (Accessed on 22 August 2014).

Fourth Blog Entry

Research techniques one can employ when studying media institutions and media audiences and the different foci and purposes these techniques would entail when studying media institutions as opposed to studying media audiences

Introduction

Media institution alternatively referred to as culture industry in Stokes (2003:101), is defined as one which has its main function the production or distribution of art, entertainment or information. As the topic indicates, the writer shall break it into two parts. Firstly a discussion on the research techniques one can employ when studying media institutions shall be engaged with and subsequently, a discussion on the different foci and purposes these techniques would entail when studying media institutions as opposed to studying media audiences shall follow.

Research techniques one can employ when studying media institutions

Various approaches or types of research are provided in Stokes (2003) with which a researcher may study the media industries. According to Stokes (2003:109-125), the following four (4) research types may be employed to research the media institutions;

1. Archive research
Archive research involves accessing original documents and using these as the basis of your research or object of analysis, Stokes (2003:109) indicates. She further points out that archive research is one of the most frequently used methods of media research, including cultural and film history. With her explanation of what an archive is; one may conclude that this type of method is focused into obtaining much information about a specific researched institution. According to Stokes (2003) archive research is one of the main methods used in all forms of historical research, including those based on texts and audiences.

2. The interview
According to Stokes (2003:114) the interview are primary means by which people are used as sources of evidence in a research. She defines interview as a method in media and cultural research that enables us to find out about people’s ideas, opinions and attitudes. As she puts it; Stokes (2003) indicates that the interview might be one’s primary method or it may be used to gain background information. In simpler terms, the interview may be used to support the data derived from, for example, the archive, or used as the primary source of data if none has been obtained. Jane Stokes indicates that interviews have been used more recently to study British soap operas. Lesley Henderson (1999) work which elicits some interesting insights into how and why soap operas address serious social issues such as breast cancer or domestic violence is cited by Stokes (2003) as an example of the use of the interview. Stokes (2003) indicates that Henderson interviewed personnel who worked on the leading television soaps in Britain such as people at various levels of the production, including writers, producers and script editors. One may conclude that the interview method is mainly concerned with individuals rather than stored material.

3. Participation observation
Stokes (2003:120) maintains that the scepticism of people in the media industry towards media studies as one of the hurdles that has to be overcome in researching media studies suggested a need for the participation observation method. Stokes (2003:120) points out that; one of the methods of understanding the routines is through participating in these routines oneself. In other words, Stokes (2003) suggests that for one to understand how the media institutions operate is for one to participate in such media institutions daily operations. In regards of media studies as Stokes (2003) indicates; most participant observation is done in industries by people who already work there or who have very good contacts, and the fieldwork is conducted over several months. She further points out that scholars have used this method in the past to examine the decision-making process at work, the professional norms and values of media workers, and how ideology behind their work gets translated into media content. The latter may be equated to the daily operations of any media institution, one may indicate.

4. Oral history
Although the oral history method typical use in media studies field is in researching audience as Stokes (2003:124) admits, she indicates that; however, it is possible to conduct an oral history study of the culture industries if you have access to people who witnessed significant developments in the history of the media. Citing Mark Williams example, Stokes (2003) indicates that Williams, 1999) interviewed Monty Margetts, the presenter of an early television cookery programme, using the techniques of oral history. However Stokes (2003) warns of the difficulty that arises from getting access to people in the industry to interview about the past.

Research techniques one can employ when studying media institutions
In her book, Stokes (2003) identifies several methods that one may employ in studying media audiences and also indicates that the primary object of analysis in that regard is people. In simpler terms Stokes (2003) highlights the point that as opposed to studying media institutions, studying media audiences is entirely people-oriented. The following methods are detailed as the best methods when one is to study media audiences.

1. Observing audiences
According to Stokes (2003:137), scientific method is based on observation, thus many methods of observing audience behaviour. She specifically singles out the experimental (laboratory) research and ethnography as some of the methods that may be useful when studying media audience. In regards to experimental research; Stokes (2003:137) indicates that this method is directly derived from science.  As Jane Stokes (2003) points out; “in the early days of mass communication research (the 1920s and 1930s), some experiments were made within the laboratory setting. Citing the Payne Fund Studies, conducted in the USA between 1928 and 1932, Stokes indicates that such studies included laboratory experiments among the many methods employed to investigate the impact of the cinema on children and young people. It may be put that, this method is concerned with observing physical responses of participants in the study rather than asking the participants questions in order to obtain answers. In one of the Payne Fund Studies as Stokes (2003) indicates; it was found that the youngsters displayed physical responses while watching films, leading the researcher to conclude that the movies did have an effect on young viewers. One of their findings, Stokes (2003) explains, was that adolescents of sixteen years of age got more excited than children of nine during scenes involving themes of a romantic or sexual nature.
Regarding ethnography, Stokes (2003) explains that this method is the most direct way of finding out how audiences behave by observing in the field. In contrast to the former method, ethnography might involve observing how people behave when they are actually watching television, shopping, dancing and so on, as Stokes (2003:138) puts it. One may maintain that, ethnography draws its focus more from the real-time behaviour of the subject of analysis rather than the effects displayed. Interestingly, Stokes (2003:140) indicates that ethnographic methods are often used in combination with other methods, commonly the interview.

2. Asking questions
“While ethnography and methods of observation can be useful in finding out about audience behaviour, if you want to find out about people’s ideas, opinions and attitudes, there is no substitute for asking them”, Stokes (2003:141). Well put and straightforward, Jane Stokes indicates that this method is focused with asking the audience questions in order for a researcher to understand some of their hidden aspects, one may maintain. According to Stokes (2003), whether they use questionnaires, interviews or focus groups, researchers are not directly observing respondents to get information, but are relying on reports of participants in the study. Stokes (2003) warns that; it is important to remember that the subjects are relaying information to the researcher about their world and are thus observing on the researcher’s behalf. In other words, what is meant is that; the subjects are the primary source of information which is unknown to the researcher, one may put it. But Stokes (2003:141) highlights that; a key to making sure that respondents give accurate reports lies in the design of the questions. Stokes (2003: 141-148) explains in-depth the technical aspects of employing this method such as, the questionnaire design, types of questions, reliability and validity techniques and so on. 

3. Focus groups
Stokes (2003:148) indicates that; the focus group is a good way of researching the responses, ideas and opinions of people in greater depth than survey. She further explains that a focus is an organized discussion of a small group of people on a given topic. One may put it that; a focus group is all about a discussion by pre-selected people (participants) about the topic researched. While regarding focus groups as best approach if one want to find out why people believe what they do, understand more of nuanced reasons behind their answers or question them about their opinions of particular media texts, Stokes (2003:148) admits that it is a more textured method of analysis and one plagued with problems of reliability and validity as a consequence.

In organizing one’s focus group, Stokes (2003:150) indicates that professionals pay people to attend focus groups. She therefore encourages one to consider their access to potential subjects and try to design a study which allows them to use their friends and fellow students (if one is a student) as subjects as much as possible. Stokes (2003:151) indicates that as to the number of subjects, there is no definitive answer as to how many people you should interview or survey in one’s audience research.

4. Oral history
Finally, another method used to research media audience is the oral history, as Stokes (2003) indicates. According to Stokes (2003:151) “interviewing is a very good way of finding out about people’s behaviour and their attitudes to the past as well as the present”. One may put it that this method is concerned with the knowledge that particular people posses about the media audience in different media epochs. According to Stokes (2003) O’Sullivan found that very little work had been done on how audiences experienced television viewing, hence this method can be used to good effect to investigate audience in the past. Stokes (2003) cites one example as being a research question such as “How influential was punk music on people growing up in the 1970s?” Given the period which this question tries to investigate, it may be put that most of the data collection will rely on the oral interviews with people who had grew up during that period of time, one may maintain.

Conclusion
This blog has addressed the methods or techniques that one may employ when researching media institutions and media audiences. It has emerged that some methods used overlaps between the audience research and the media institution research. Although the methods used are at some stages similar, such as the oral history method, the audience research methods seem to mostly rely on people while the institutions rely on the media artefacts as the subjects of the study. The different foci and purposes of each research methods were also indicated in the discussions under each media component (audience or institutions) respectively.

List of Sources

Stokes, J. 2003. How to do media and cultural studies research. London: Sage. [O] Available:  http://www.scribd.com/doc/53980534/Stokes-How-Todo-Cultural-Studies (Accessed 21 August 2014)

Third Blog Entry

The purpose of this blog is to reflect on the two main aspects on the media. The writer attempts to elaborate on firstly, the purpose of studying media audiences then secondly, the purpose of studying media institutions. Works from various distinguished authors are employed in order to address these two aspects on the media.

a. The purpose of studying media audiences

In order to address the topic, one’s point of departure must be defining what audience is.  Hartley (2011:16) indicates that; originating as a collective noun for those within earshot, who can ‘audit’ a dramatic performance or hear the words of a monarch or pope, the term audience is now used to describe a large number of individually unidentifiable and mutually anonymous people, usually united by their participation in the media. He further points out that; given the varying demographics of this group, not to mention variations between nations, the concept itself is a means by which such an essentially unknowable group can be imagined. With the aid of Hartley (2011) observations, one may strongly assert that, indeed, the media audiences may be equated to an abstract to the media institutions. In simpler terms, it may be put that; the media institutions are perpetually delivering their content to the large number of people who are unknown to such institutions, one may argue.

In an attempt to answer his question “Why audience research?”, Mytton (1999:14) establishes that, the questions “Who is listening?” or “Who is watching?” are surely not unwarranted or even remarkable questions to ask. He suggests that; certainly the broadcasters need to know something about the people who are watching or listening. This indicates that as the media audience are as Hartley (2011) described, ‘the unknowable group that is imagined’.

While admitting that audience research is more than a matter of knowing if anyone is listening or watching, Mytton (1999:15) indicates that; by audience research we mean the various methods and techniques used to find out about audience. He goes on to point out that it covers a wide range of information gathering exercises.

According to Mytton (1999:16); broadcasters in the early days of radio in Europe and the United States knew remarkably little about their listeners. He further indicates that what they thought they knew was based on very unreliable and misleading methods. One may strongly argue that such unreliable methods were resulting from the lack of proper study of the audience, hence a need for audience research. With Mytton (1999) view on the nature of broadcasting in the early days of radio in the United States, an indication is that there was no systematic audience research. Mytton (1999:16) observes that most United States broadcasting was and is paid for by advertising which determined what went on air. But he further makes a point that the advertisers soon began to realise that they needed information that was independent of their views and opinions or those of the owners of the radio stations. The latter hints to the need for audience research that arose from the observations of the advertisers, one may argue.

According to Mytton (1999:19) audience research can be used as a means of maximising the effectiveness of public advocacy campaigns, and of improving and enhancing education and information for effective democracy and good governance. On the other side of the discourse Hartley (2011:17) indicates that audience enable media organisations to sell advertising or to fulfil their public and statutory obligations, whether for television, radio, magazines or the press. In his view, Hartley (2011) emphasises that it is important to know the size, quality (demographic composition) and characteristics of audiences for this purpose these data relate directly to revenue.

It now becomes clear to one that the audience is the most vital part of the media organisations to be able to survive in doing their business, one may point out. As Hartley (2011:17) puts it; “for media organisations, the concept of audience allows the exchange of information and entertainment to become commodified”.

b. The purpose of studying media institutions

According to McQuail (2010:282) “most organisations have mixed goals, and rarely are they all openly stated”. He points out that mass media are no exception, and they may even be particularly ambiguous in this respect. One may suggest that Dennis McQuail puts the media institutions in par with any other organisations that exist globally but most importantly hints that they may have different purposes. Indeed the media institutions would not function in a same manner as any others; they do have their own unique qualities. In his argument, McQuail (2010) indicates that most media are run as businesses but often with some ‘ideal’ goals, and some media are run primarily for ‘idealistic’ social or cultural purposes, without seeking profit.

Jensen (2012) work gives a more clear detail on the purpose of studying media institutions. In summary, according to Jensen (2012: 73-78) the internal environment and external context within which the media institutions operate informs their final product. One may point out that these internal functions of the media are subject to research, hence the need to study the media institutions.

According to Jensen (2012:72) the production of particular media artefacts within specific industrial systems obviously takes place within more general context. He indicates that one level of analysis that may be used when studying the media institutions is what he termed ‘national and international political economy and policy’. With this unit of analysis, Jensen (2012) attempted to explain how the media institutions and their functioning are affected by such factor afore mentioned. One may argue that; in order to understand a certain media institutions what appears to be of most importance is the degree of the effect put on the media institutions by the political sphere. In this regard, one may be able to understand the functioning of a specific media institution, one may put it.

Secondly Jansen (2012:73) speaks of the second level of analysis; specific industrial contexts and practices. He indicates that; historical approaches have also been prominent in research examining the institutional configuration of media industries, but further indicates that this level of analysis focuses precisely on specific industrial practices. One may put it that; this level of analysis focuses on the production norms the specific industry follows. Simply put, one may refer to those norms as the operational tradition. Jensen (2012:73) make notes of what researchers may make use of when applying this level of analysis on media institutions. According to Jansen (2012) researchers rely heavily on primary historical records- contracts, inter-office memoranda and among others things, production manuals.

In conclusion one may indicate that the purpose of studying media institutions lies on the understanding of how such institutions functions, what production do they follow, their stance in the political economy and in most cases for different countries, their position in relation to the government policies on the media. One may point out that policies on media vary from country to country and thus difference in the functioning of media institutions respectively.

 LIST OF SOURCES

Hartley, J. 2011. Communication, cultural and media studies. 4th edition. London: Routledge.

Jensen, KB. 2012. A handbook of media and communication research: qualitative and quantitative methodologies. 2nd edition. London: Routledge.

Mytton, G. 2007. Handbook on Radio and Television Audience Research. (web edition). Paris: UNICEF and UNESCO.

McQuail, D. 2010. McQuail’s mass communication theory. 6th edition. London: Sage.

Second Blog Entry

Ten credible sources that a student could reliably use in developing research project with qualitative research design

The purpose of this blog is to identify and list the sources that are relevant to developing research project with qualitative research design. Furthermore a discussion on the summary of content and the reason for their choice shall be provided for each of them.

Source 1

Mann, C. & Steward, F. 2000. Internet communication and qualitative research: A handbook for researching online. London, Calif: SAGE.

http://www.uk.sagepub.com/booksProdDesc.nav?prodId=Book210073#tabview=google

Content summary:

The book is about doing qualitative research on the internet. Mann and Steward introduces the audience at what they termed for the purpose of their book, the computer mediated communication (CMC). When one reads through the book will find out that the topics covered are those topics covered by other authors in their books about doing qualitative research. For an example, Winner and Dominick covered a topic on conducting interviews which Mann and Steward covered in this book. The only difference with this source is that, the nature of the research process is intended for the online purposes only; that is, the book is focusing on the research done on the internet and not out there in the natural field.

Why choosing this source?

Taking into consideration the growing trend of virtual world, technology is rapidly becoming a basic need for every human being. This may be viewed in the light of the fast growing internet usages in our everyday lives. Societies are exposed to the internet in all shapes of their lives, through mobile phones, work computers, and personal computers to name few. Given this account, it is very fair for one to conclude that; in the near feature about most of the research activities may be conducted online. This source is a credible handbook to provide a researcher with methods and skills to employ when conducting data collection online for the purpose of their studies.

Source 2

Silverman, D. 2004. Qualitative research: theory, method and practice. London, Calif, ND: Sage

http://books.google.co.za/books?id=-YvRs1O87KkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

Content summary:

Silverman provides a compilation of topic relating to qualitative research by other leading researchers and scholars in the field of qualitative research. The contents of this book cover more on the methods of data collection and how to interpret it. Silverman provided different methods a researcher may use to collect data such as; observation, texts, visual data and talk. For every method, the contributing authors discuss the method of analysis of each method respectively.

Why choosing this source?

In order for enhancing my understanding in analysing the data collected, this book serves a great importance for that regard. Its content being a collection of the variety of qualitative researchers (or writers in that field) gives it a more balanced form in terms of accuracy. Since research itself is an open field, it is scientifically correct for one to say this source is credible one given the various writers who had contributed to its content.

Source 3

Silverman, D. 2013. Doing qualitative research. London. Calif: Sage

http://books.google.co.za/books?hl=en&lr=&id=LySjM0tY-tEC&oi=fnd&pg=PP2&dq=qualitative+research+books&ots=kE-4tHIKx2&sig=_WyDdAsPvk9Qu8TF_TW9SndrfQw#v=onepage&q=qualitative%20research%20books&f=false

Content summary:

The book is divided into six parts and consists of a whopping 27 chapters. It begins with a chapter on how to use the book and in part five of it touches on the chapter about getting support as a junior researcher. Silverman emphasises the importance of the use of the supervisor allocated to researchers when conducting a qualitative research. However, apart from that; the methods of data collection and other steps followed in a research process are discussed in detail. The book also touches on how to write up the final research report. This book is relevant to the current time setting, given its recent publishing.

Why choosing this book?

I may argue that the content is in par with the current dimensions in the research world. The examples provided are practical and are directed to challenge the user directly. It is an interactive source when one reads through its content. This is evident where the author provides some valuable tips to the user about general technicalities to avoid when doing research.

Source 4

Berger, A. 2011. Media and communication research methods: an introduction to qualitative and quantitative methods. London, Calif: Sage.

http://books.google.co.za/books/about/Media_and_Communication_Research_Methods.html?id=8NAe8d2KxrcC&redir_esc=y

Content summary:

Part one to three of these book deals only with the qualitative research. The most important thing about this book is the combination of discussions on both qualitative and qualitative methods in the same book. However Berger explains this in one of the topics in the book. A topic on textual analysis, which by this far proves to me to be a centre of discussion when doing qualitative research in media studies is, touched on.

Why choosing this book?

The book is a credible source because it deals with the qualitative methods aimed at media and communication research specifically. This gives it a relevance to the field of media studies most particularly, the research part of it. The book was not published long time ago; it can still address the contemporary phenomena in the media research field.

Source 5

Martin, NM. and Nakayama, T.K. 2007. Intercultural communication in contexts. 4th edition. Arizona: McGraw-Hill

Content summary:

This book attempts to address the principles of intercultural communication as one reads through it. In the first to the fourth chapter, a brief history in intercultural communication is dealt with. The fifth to the seventh chapter touches on the intercultural communication process. A reader is exposed to the practical phenomena where intercultural communication takes place. Chapter eight to twelve takes a discussion on the applications of intercultural communication.

Why choosing the book?

It came to my attention that; as researcher, different cultural perspective shall overcome the studies that I will be conducting. Since the qualitative research has field observations as one of its data collection methods, one will have to understand the skills on how to communicate with other cultural groups. This book equips the researcher with a professional way of how to interact with other cultures. With the researcher having read this book, it will be easier for them to conduct interviews with any respondents they may be confronted with when doing the data collection for their studies.

Source 6

Corbin, J. and Strauss, A. 2008.The basics of qualitative research. 3rd edition. London, Calif. Sage

http://www.sagepub.com/booksProdDesc.nav?prodId=Book226809#tabview=google

Content summary

The book deals with the basic guidelines one has to follow when conducting a qualitative research. It first introduces the reader to the practical considerations when doing the qualitative research. The reader is given the brief practical examples to relate with in which a perfect qualitative method fits. A chapter in ‘Introduction to Context, Process and Theoretical Integration’ provides the user with a skill to integrate the theoretical knowledge gained with the practical research process which is to be undertaken when conducting a research in a real fife situation. Most importantly, the book touches on a topic about ‘Strategies for Qualitative Data Analysis’ which is the main concern when doing a qualitative research. A comprehensive discussion, with examples, is covered in detail.

Why choosing this source?

This book, as one looks through its content, is step-by-step manual which the user will not find difficult to use. It touches on the basic concepts related with the qualitative research and more importantly provides the examples of each concept discussed. The integration of the theoretical knowledge gained when reading the book with the practical situations gives this book relevance to be used when one is conducting a qualitative research.

Source 7

Maxwell, AJ.  2013. Qualitative research design: an interactive approach. London, Calif. Sage

http://books.google.co.za/books/about/Qualitative_Research_Design_An_Interacti.html?id=DFZc28cayiUC&redir_esc=y

Content summary

The book is talking to the user, to start with. Methods that are important in the qualitative research design are covered in the book. The book addresses the important points one has to ponder when engaging with the qualitative research design. A topic on ‘validity: how might you be wrong?’ in chapter 6 is an example of such points to ponder. Chapter 4 comprehensively details the different types of questions that are used in the qualitative research design.

Why choosing the book?

The content of this book is designed in a manner in which the user is being asked questions while the chapter content addresses such questions. It may be put that; when one is being taught in an interactive manner, it will be easy for one to understand the content with less difficulties. The manner in which chapter is introduced in its heading is quite important because it shows that a specific question shall be addressed.

Source 8

Merriam, BS. 2009. Qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. CA. Wiley

http://books.google.co.za/books?id=tvFICrgcuSIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Sharan+B.+Merriam%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3UqPU_WKBuie7AbPoICgCQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false

Content summary

The book starts with introducing what the qualitative research is and provides its types. It tackles the procedure on how to collect the qualitative data and furthermore provides the skills one may employ when collecting such data.  The analysis methods and guidelines on how to interpret the data collected are dealt with in more detail on the third part of the book. The ethical considerations are also highlighted which are intended to remind the user/researcher of their morally acceptable conduct when doing a qualitative research design.

Why choosing the book?

This book is not over populated with variety of complex topics. It is a specific to the point type of book. The author deals only with the designing and the implementation process of qualitative research. The user will be able to understand the content of the book for a specific part of research process without having to worry about other supporting topics.

Source 9

Yin, RK. 2011. Qualitative research from start to finish. NY: Guilford Press

http://teddykw2.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/qualitative-research-from-start-to-finish.pdf

Content summary

The types of approaches to the qualitative research namely; the practical, inductive and adaptive approach are discussed. The author attempted to provide the variety of topics that can be studied through the qualitative research, unlike other forms of social science research. The book focuses on the underlying technicalities of qualitative research design which is evident where; the six general competencies, transcending the needed technical skills to do qualitative research well. The content covers the basic research process but goes on further to touch on the topic about ‘taking the qualitative research one step further’.

Why choosing the book?

This book addresses the qualitative research design process systematically and practically. It does not limit its content only to the final steps of the process but goes on further to give the user detailed guidelines on how to grow the research further. It is relevant to the qualitative research design given its content which is also evident in most of the books on qualitative research.

Source 10

Boeije, H. 2010. Analysis in qualitative research. London, Calif: Sage

http://books.google.co.za/books?id=z1Z0RIx-izwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=qualitative+research&hl=en&sa=X&ei=uFqPU-25OerH7AaxkYCQDw&ved=0CD0Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=qualitative%20research&f=false

Content summary

Data analysis is the most crucial phase in the qualitative research design, one may argue. In this book Boeije carefully focused on the analysis part of qualitative research design. However this does not omit the discussions on the other steps of the qualitative research process. The book gives a detailed discussion on the technical aspects of analysing the qualitative research data such as the coding of data. Different types of coding are discussed and examples are provided for the user’s understanding. A topic on checklists for asserting the quality of the analysis is covered.

Why choosing the book?
The manner in which the author chose the practical examples to explain the theoretical concepts is comprehensive. The book gives a more in-depth discussion on the analysis part of the qualitative research data. It explains more technical terms with examples that are not complicated, one may put it. It is a perfect book for the user to consult when dealing with the data analysis part in the research process.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Blog Entry One

My name is Simon Mojolwane; I am currently a BA Honours in Media Studies candidate at the University of South Africa. I have obtained my undergraduate BA Communication Science in the previous year on 11^th September 2009 with UNISA as well. It has been a quite interesting journey towards obtaining my first degree.

I choose to do this course on Media Research (COM4802 Theme 01) because upon my exposure to its overview, I realised how important it is for a potential media researcher. The concepts and methods covered in the syllabus are well suited for a media researcher. Most importantly, the content of the course material (textbook, recommended readers and the tasks) is in par with the everyday developing media industry.

I hope by the end of this year, to have understood the skill of blogging about the knowledge I will gain while doing this course. Also what is more important for me is to gain more ability to understand the requirements and guidelines of conducting a media research. This will help a lot when coming to implementing such abilities in a practical life situation.

The purpose of my blog is straight and forward, to blog on “doing media research”. However, the most its important purpose as it is an academic affair, is to be able to share my efforts on doing media research with my fellow scholars who are also engaged in this task. In other words I may put it that, this blog will serve as a platform for interaction with my fellow scholars in terms of evaluating each other’s progress via our blog entries respectively.

When conducting a research in media studies, four important concepts come to one’s attention namely; the research process, textual analysis, qualitative research and ethics in media studies research. Now, what does each mean?

Ø  The research process

Regardless of how the word research is used, it essentially means the same thing: an attempt to discover something as Wimmer & Dominick (2006:2) note. In their chapter on research process, they systematically introduces a potential researcher to what a research is and more importantly what are the steps to be taken when conducting a mass media research. To make it more understandable one may refer to the research process as the important layout of the format one must employ when conducting a research. A topic on research procedures details exactly the steps one is to follow in doing research (Wimmer & Dominick. 2006:14).

Ø  Textual analysis

The insights of textual studies may help to remind other qualitative researchers that while data sets hold information, they are, first and foremost, texts which must be analysed and interpreted to yield that information as Jensen & Jankowski (2006:133) note. In contrast with the quantitative analysis which merely counts the occurrences of texts rather than discussing their purpose and meaning in a narrative approach, one may argue that textual analysis attempt to dig deep in understanding the purpose and effects of the text in solving a research problem. It is important to note that when doing media research, one is in most cases confronted by dealing with problems relating to social intangible phenomena such as behaviours or attitudes.

Ø  Qualitative research

Qualitative research involves several methods of data collection, such as focus groups, field observation, in-depth interviews, and case studies (Wimmer & Dominick. 2006:48). They further establish that; the variables in qualitative research may not be measured or quantified. In other words, unlike in the quantitative research, the analysis in the qualitative research draws much from a narrative form. However Winner and Dominick warn against the smaller nature of a qualitative research sample which may prevent the researcher to generalise their findings beyond the sample selected for the study. This may imply that, qualitative research is suitable to investigate a specific phenomenon at a specific time frame.

Ø  Ethics in media studies research

Ethical behaviour is the right thing to do (Wimmer & Dominick. 2006.67). How does this relate to media studies research? One may ask. It may put as; ethics are those set of rules and guidelines set by the research council that stipulate how researchers must conduct themselves in a more accepted human behaviours when conducting their studies. Given the fact that media studies researchers mostly deal with other human beings when conducting their studies, it is important to respect the subjects of your study and never violate their moral rights. They may be compiled in different forms for a specific part of research. Wimmer and Dominick (2006: 76-78) provide a discussion in these purpose specific ethical conducts; ethics in data analysis and reporting and ethics in the publication process.

Core principles of qualitative research ethics and textual analysis for media studies scholars

Ø  Media research scholars must stick to the research process guidelines when embarking on conducting a media research.

Ø  The research should be original, but must also engage with your field of study (Stokes .2003)

Ø  Follow the regulations stipulated by the council concerning the research

Ø  The media studies scholars must refer from their fellow scholars or previous studies when they are confronted by a whole new situation to study (Literature review).

Ø  Never present a deceiving act to the participants of your study

List of sources

Jankowski, N.W. and Jensen, K.B. 2006. A Handbook of qualitative methodologies for mass communication research. New York: Routledge [O]. Available:

http://www.rasaneh.org/Images/News/AtachFile/16-11-1390/FILE634640305123552500.pdf

Stokes, J. 2003. How to do media and cultural studies research. London: Sage [0] .Available:

http://books.google.co.za/books?id=qFZWzhsVfXIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Jane+Stokes%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=BuKNU5GNGYmJ7AbHk4GICg&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false

Wimmer, R.D. and Dominick, J.R. 2006. Mass media research: an introduction. Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth.